Concrete is a composite building material made of aggregate bound together by a fluid cement that hardens, or cures, into a solid mass; after water, it is the most used substance on Earth and the most widely used building material in the world. In ordinary Portland cement concrete, aggregate mixed with dry cement and water forms a fluid slurry that can be poured or molded into a form; the cement then reacts with the water in a process called hydration, which hardens the mix over several hours into a durable, stone like material. Because hydration is exothermic, ambient temperature strongly affects how quickly concrete sets, and additives such as pozzolans or superplasticizers are often mixed in to modify the wet mix's properties or to speed or slow curing. Most structural concrete has steel reinforcing bars, or rebar, embedded in it to supply the tensile strength plain concrete lacks on its own, producing reinforced concrete. Before Portland cement was invented in the early 1800s, builders used lime based cement binders such as lime putty, and the Romans had already developed a durable volcanic ash concrete centuries earlier that let them build vaulted structures such as the Pantheon.
Facts
Element Kind First Used EraRoman; revived industrially in the nineteenth century 1 Connections
Associated With
Source Encyclopedia Britannica
Roman builders were the first to exploit concrete structurally at scale, which is what let them span and vault spaces the trabeated Greek system could not.
Source Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of ArchitectureBanister Fletcher, edited by Dan Cruickshank (20th edition)
Source Encyclopedia Britannica
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Source Encyclopedia Britannica
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Source Selfridges Birmingham (Wikipedia)
Source Storer House (Los Angeles, California) - Wikipedia
Source Wikidata: Sydney Town Hall
Source Taliesin West (Wikipedia)
Source Wikidata: Teatro Colon
Still the largest unreinforced concrete dome ever built.
Source Encyclopedia Britannica
Source TWA Flight Center (Wikipedia)
Source Underground House Las Vegas (Wikipedia)
Source Unite d'habitation, Wikipedia
Source United States Bullion Depository (Wikipedia)
Source Villa Cavrois (Wikipedia)
Source Villa Susini (Wikidata)
Source Wikidata: Washington Dulles International Airport Main Terminal
Source Wat Rong Khun (Wikipedia)
Source Woodchester Villa (Wikipedia)
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1. Encyclopedia Britannica
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.Britannica: Concrete, lead paragraph
concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded together by cement and water.
- Seen In: Colosseum
- Seen In: The Pantheon
- Associated With: Roman Architecture
- Associated With: Reinforced Concrete
View the Source Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture
Banister Fletcher, edited by Dan Cruickshank (20th edition), Architectural Press, 1996- Roman construction
- Associated With: Roman Architecture, General history, Roman construction chapter, on concrete
Wikipedia
Wikimedia FoundationLead section, composition and hydrationQuote, Lead section, composition and hydration
Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bound together with a fluid cement that cures to a solid.
View the Source Notre-Dame du Haut (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Notre-Dame du Haut, Infobox material field: ConcreteView the Source Wikidata: Al Hamra Tower
Wikidata: Teatro Colon
Wikidata: Ford Foundation Building
Seen In: Ford Foundation Building, Infobox material field: Concrete and steel frameView the Source Wikidata: Washington Dulles International Airport Main Terminal
Seen In: Washington Dulles International Airport Main Terminal, Infobox material field: Glass, metal, concreteView the Source Doha Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Doha Tower, Infobox material field: Concrete / SteelView the Source Millau Viaduct (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Millau Viaduct, Infobox material field: Concrete, steelView the Source Queen Victoria Building (Wikidata)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Queen Victoria Building, Infobox material field: Sydney sandstone clad walls, brick and concrete, steel roof structure with concrete and fibreglass domes painted to look like concreteView the Source Lenin's Mausoleum (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Lenin's Mausoleum, Infobox material field: Concrete and marbleView the Source Underground House Las Vegas (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Underground House Las Vegas, Infobox material field: Concrete and steelView the Source Villa Susini (Wikidata)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Villa Susini, Infobox material field: concrete, steel, iron, stone, brick, woodView the Source Wikidata: Sydney Town Hall
Seen In: Sydney Town Hall, Infobox material field: Sydney sandstone exterior walls;, Brick & plaster internal walls;, Timber, concrete & tile floors;, Timber roof trusses, Steel & wrought iron piView the Source Palace of the Parliament (Wikipedia)
WikipediaSeen In: Palace of the Parliament, Article bodyQuote, Seen In: Palace of the Parliament, Article body
The bunker is a room with 1.5-metre-thick (4.9 ft) concrete walls said to be impervious to radiation.
View the Source Jewish Museum Berlin, Wikipedia
Seen In: Jewish Museum Berlin, Article bodyQuote, Seen In: Jewish Museum Berlin, Article body
The bare concrete Tower is neither heated nor cooled
View the Source Alcatraz Island (Wikipedia)
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In 1909 construction began on the huge concrete main cell block
View the Source Villa Cavrois (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Villa Cavrois, Article bodyQuote, Seen In: Villa Cavrois, Article body
concrete ceiling, metal, steel, glass, green Swedish marble in the main dining room
View the Source Robie House (Wikipedia)
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The facade and perimeter walls are made largely of Roman brick, with concrete trim, cut-stone decorations, and art glass windows.
View the Source 432 Park Avenue (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: 432 Park Avenue, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: 432 Park Avenue, Wikipedia lead
The tower's exterior is a lattice of poured-in-place concrete made with white Portland cement.
View the Source TWA Flight Center (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: TWA Flight Center, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: TWA Flight Center, Wikipedia lead
The headhouse has a thin shell concrete roof, shaped like a set of bird's wings and supported by four Y-shaped piers.
View the Source Johnson Wax Headquarters, Wikipedia
Seen In: Johnson Wax Headquarters, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Johnson Wax Headquarters, Wikipedia lead
The Johnson Administration Building is designed in a variation of the streamlined Art Moderne style, with a curved brick facade and Pyrex glass-tube windows.
View the Source Selfridges Birmingham (Wikipedia)
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It has a steel framework with sprayed concrete facade.
View the Source Robin Hood Gardens, Wikipedia
Seen In: Robin Hood Gardens, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Robin Hood Gardens, Wikipedia lead
It was built as a council housing estate with homes spread across 'streets in the sky': social housing characterised by broad aerial walkways in long concrete blocks, much like the Park Hill estate in Sheffield; it was informed by, and a reaction against, Le Corbusier's Unité d'Habitation.
View the Source Pirelli Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Pirelli Tower, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Pirelli Tower, Wikipedia lead
The construction used approximately 30,000 m3 (1,100,000 cu ft) of concrete.
View the Source Ennis House - Wikipedia
Seen In: Ennis House, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Ennis House, Wikipedia lead
The house is the largest of four concrete textile block houses that Wright designed in Greater Los Angeles in the 1920s, the others being La Miniatura, the Storer House, and the Freeman House.
View the Source Schindler House - Wikipedia
Seen In: Schindler House, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Schindler House, Wikipedia lead
The concrete walls and sliding canvas panels made novel use of industrial materials, while the open floor plan integrated the external environment into the residence, setting a precedent for California architecture in particular.
View the Source The Motherland Calls, Wikipedia
Seen In: Motherland Calls, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Motherland Calls, Wikipedia lead
Designed primarily by sculptor Yevgeny Vuchetich with assistance from architect Yakov Belopolsky, the concrete sculpture commemorates the casualties of the Battle of Stalingrad, and is the predominant component of a monument complex, which includes several plazas and other sculptural works.
View the Source Wikipedia: Salesforce Tower
Seen In: Salesforce Tower, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Salesforce Tower, Wikipedia lead
The exterior of the building consists of a glass and steel curtain wall with a steel frame and a concrete core.
View the Source Wikipedia: CITIC Plaza
Seen In: CITIC Plaza, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: CITIC Plaza, Wikipedia lead
Completed in June 1997, it was the tallest concrete building in the world until the completion of the Trump Tower Chicago, and the tallest in China.
View the Source Storer House (Los Angeles, California) - Wikipedia
Seen In: Storer House, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Storer House, Wikipedia lead
The exterior is built of concrete textile blocks, which are alternately plain in design or decorated with engraved patterns.
View the Source S. C. Johnson and Son Administration Building and Research Tower - Wikipedia
Seen In: SC Johnson Administration Building, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: SC Johnson Administration Building, Wikipedia lead
The Johnson Administration Building is designed in a variation of the streamlined Art Moderne style, with a curved brick facade and Pyrex glass-tube windows.
View the Source Euromast, Wikipedia
Seen In: Euromast, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Euromast, Wikipedia lead
The tower is a concrete structure with an internal diameter of 9 m (30 ft) and a wall thickness of 30 cm (12 in).
View the Source Kingsley Plantation, Wikipedia
Seen In: Kingsley Plantation, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Kingsley Plantation, Wikipedia lead
The foundations of the house, kitchen, barn, and the slave quarters were constructed of durable tabby concrete.
View the Source Causeway (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Causeway, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Causeway, Wikipedia lead
It can be constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete.
View the Source Taliesin West (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Taliesin West, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Taliesin West, Wikipedia lead
The walls are made of desert masonry, a mixture of local rocks and concrete, which were originally topped by wood-and-canvas roofs.
View the Source United States Bullion Depository (Wikipedia)
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Between its fenced perimeter and granite-lined concrete structure lie rings of razor wire.
View the Source One57 (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: One57, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: One57, Wikipedia lead
One57's structural features include concrete floor slabs and two basement levels.
View the Source Wat Rong Khun (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Wat Rong Khun, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Wat Rong Khun, Wikipedia lead
The primary structure of the temple is made of a basic concrete frame and a wooden roof.
View the Source Faisal Mosque (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Faisal Mosque, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Faisal Mosque, Wikipedia lead
Designed by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay, the mosque features a contemporary design consisting of eight sides of concrete shell and is inspired by the design of a typical Bedouin tent.
View the Source Woodchester Villa (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Woodchester Villa, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Woodchester Villa, Wikipedia lead
Its walls alternate between 4.5 metres and 5 metres in width and are made of 16 inch-thick poured concrete.
View the Source Highland Cottage (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Highland Cottage, Wikipedia leadQuote, Seen In: Highland Cottage, Wikipedia lead
It was the first concrete house in Westchester County, built in the 1870s in the Gothic Revival architectural style.
View the Source Wikipedia: Lloyd's Building
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Lloyd's building, Article textQuote, Seen In: Lloyd's building, Article text
Rogers selects primarily concrete and some steel for the structure, utilizing materials appropriate to the site's local logistics.
View the Source Guggenheim Museum New York (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Guggenheim Museum New York, Article textQuote, Seen In: Guggenheim Museum New York, Article text
Cohen constructed the facade of gunite, a type of sprayed concrete, as a cost-cutting measure.
View the Source Wikipedia: Chandigarh Capitol Complex
WikipediaSeen In: Chandigarh Capitol Complex, Article textQuote, Seen In: Chandigarh Capitol Complex, Article text
All three buildings are cast in rough-cast concrete with Le Corbusier's signature Brise soleil (concrete sun-shading screens) and striking cantilevers.
View the Source Unite d'habitation, Wikipedia
Seen In: Unite d'Habitation, Marseille, Article textQuote, Seen In: Unite d'Habitation, Marseille, Article text
The building is constructed in béton brut (rough-cast concrete), as the hoped-for steel frame proved too expensive due to the post-war steel shortage.
View the Source Calgary Tower - Wikipedia
Seen In: Calgary Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Calgary Tower, Article text
The column of the tower was built from an unprecedented continual pour of concrete.
View the Source Kuala Lumpur Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Kuala Lumpur Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Kuala Lumpur Tower, Article text
Approximately 50,000 cubic metres of concrete were continuously poured for 31 hours, thus setting a record in the Malaysian construction industry.
View the Source Ostankino Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Ostankino Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Ostankino Tower, Article text
To ensure the strength and stability of the concrete frame, Nikitin incorporated 149 taut steel ropes.
View the Source N Seoul Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Namsan Seoul Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Namsan Seoul Tower, Article text
The tower reached its full height when the concrete shaft and mast were topped out in 1971, and the project was completed when the observation decks were finished in 1975.
View the Source Royal National Theatre (Wikipedia)
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The building's main construction material is a pale concrete, intended to complement the colour of the stone of Waterloo Bridge and Somerset House.
View the Source Barbican Estate (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Barbican Estate, Article textQuote, Seen In: Barbican Estate, Article text
The flats reflect the widespread use in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s of concrete as the visible face of the building.
View the Source Ponte City Apartments (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Ponte City Apartments, Article textQuote, Seen In: Ponte City Apartments, Article text
The design-cylindrical shape and concrete material-and urban concept-a city within a city with services and shops on site-was borrowed from Chicago architect Bertrand Goldberg's Marina City (1964), at a time that architectural historian Clive Chipkin calls the "great apartheid building boom," when several Johannesburg firms were borrowing Chicago forms.
View the Source Ryugyong Hotel, Wikipedia
Seen In: Ryugyong Hotel, Article textQuote, Seen In: Ryugyong Hotel, Article text
For over a decade, the unfinished building sat vacant and without windows, fixtures, or fittings, appearing as a massive concrete shell.
View the Source Federation Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Federation Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Federation Tower, Article text
According to the company Potok, which is the builder of the tower, it used grade B90 concrete which is twice as strong as regular concrete and will allow the skyscraper to withstand a direct hit of an aircraft.
View the Source Cayan Tower, Wikipedia
Seen In: Cayan Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Cayan Tower, Article text
The rooms of the tower are designed in such a way that it would not be affected by direct sunlight due to titanium-coloured metal panels on cast-in-place concrete columns aided with repetitive staggered screen panels to stop penetrating sunlight from disturbing the residents of the unit.
View the Source Aqua (Chicago)
Seen In: Aqua Tower, Article textQuote, Seen In: Aqua Tower, Article text
The result is a building composed of irregularly shaped concrete floor slabs which lend the facade an undulating, sculptural quality.
View the Source 20 Fenchurch Street - Wikipedia
Seen In: 20 Fenchurch Street, Article textQuote, Seen In: 20 Fenchurch Street, Article text
The concrete core was topped out in March 2012 and by July the structural steelwork was under way around the core.
View the Source Casamaures (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Casamaures, Article textQuote, Seen In: Casamaures, Article text
The villa was built of formed and molded concrete, and completed in 1867.
View the Source Malacanang Palace - Wikipedia
Seen In: Malacanang Palace, Article textQuote, Seen In: Malacanang Palace, Article text
The building was now made of poured concrete, concrete slabs, steel girders and trusses, all concealed under ornate hardwood floors, panels and ceilings.
View the Source Gran Hotel Ciudad de Mexico (Wikipedia)
Wikimedia FoundationSeen In: Gran Hotel Ciudad de Mexico, Article textQuote, Seen In: Gran Hotel Ciudad de Mexico, Article text
It was the first building built using the "Chicago" technique, using iron and concrete and was home to one of the first department stores in Mexico City.
View the Source Roma Termini railway station, Wikipedia
Seen In: Roma Termini railway station, Article textQuote, Seen In: Roma Termini railway station, Article text
This great hall is fronted by full-height glass walls, and is covered by a concrete roof that consists of a flattened and segmented arch, a modernist version of a barrel vault from a Roman bath.
View the Source Iolani Palace - Wikipedia
Seen In: Iolani Palace, Article textQuote, Seen In: Iolani Palace, Article text
It was built of brick with concrete facing.
View the Source Wikipedia: Burj Al Arab
WikipediaSeen In: Burj Al Arab, Article textQuote, Seen In: Burj Al Arab, Article text
The building contains over 70,000 m3 (92,000 yd3) of concrete and 9,000 tons of steel.
View the Source Fort Bard (Wikipedia)
Seen In: Fort Bard, Infobox: materialsQuote, Seen In: Fort Bard, Infobox: materials
Stone Concrete
View the Source Open Questions (1 open question)
Why has Roman concrete endured two thousand years, in surf and weather, while modern concrete structures decay within decades?
Recent materials research has produced strong partial answers, including reactions between seawater and volcanic ash that grow reinforcing minerals in Roman marine concrete, and lime fragments that may reseal cracks as they open, but the full recipe and practice remain incompletely understood, translation of the findings into modern durable and low-carbon concretes is unfinished work, and the research groups involved continue to publish competing accounts of which mechanisms matter most.
What would resolve this A validated account of the Roman mix and curing practice sufficient to reproduce its durability in modern test structures, monitored over decades rather than inferred from laboratory samples.
Materials Science, Archaeology, Civil EngineeringEncyclopedia Britannica
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